Ensuring Teaching is
Evidence-Based
Ensuring Teaching is Evidence-Based
Evidence
The teaching of reading and how we learn to read have been studied extensively for decades. Here you will find details of some of these studies, including large-scale and small scale research projects, articles and books by experts, and reports of teachers’ experiences.
The Effects of a Systematic Synthetic Phonics Programme on Reading, Writing and Spelling
(England)
“Crucially, these studies have demonstrated how an early grounding in synthetic phonics can make it possible for all children to leave primary school better able to access the secondary-school curriculum.”
The Effects of Synthetic Phonics Teaching on Reading and Spelling Attainment
(Scotland)
“Overall, we can conclude that a synthetic phonics programme, as a part of the reading curriculum, has a major and long lasting effect on children’s reading and spelling attainment.”
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and Reading First (RF)
(USA)
“Scientific evidence has taught us that reading must be taught—directly and systematically—and that children most at risk require the most instruction with the best-prepared teachers.”
Teaching Reading, Report and Recommendations
(Australia)
“The Committee recommends that teachers provide systematic, direct and explicit phonics instruction so that children master the essential alphabetic code-breaking skills required for foundational reading proficiency.”
A meta-analysis on the effectiveness of phonics instruction for teaching decoding skills to students with intellectual disability
(Switzerland)
“Systematic phonics instruction is effective to teach decoding skills to students with ID [intellectual disability], as it is for typically developing children.”
SPELD(SA) Study of the Effects of a Synthetic Phonics and Systematic Spelling and Grammar Program
(Australia)
“This study demonstrates that the program of synthetic phonics, systematic spelling and grammar instruction used to teach these students offers the potential to develop students’ reading and spelling skills … regardless of the students’ level of ability in skills known to predict reading and spelling achievement at school entry”
Becoming a Nation of Readers
(USA)
“Becoming a Nation of Readers was developed by the National Commission on Reading and their findings concluded that “early and systematic phonics was essential” to long-term reading success.”
The effect of phonics instruction on the reading comprehension of beginning readers
“This study investigated … two groups of 6-year-old beginning readers taught to read by a phonics and by a “book experience” non-phonics approach … The two groups were matched for word recognition but despite this, the phonics taught children had higher reading comprehension.”
Effectiveness of treatment approaches for children and adolescents with reading disabilities
(USA)
“The results revealed that phonics instruction is not only the most frequently investigated treatment approach, but also the only approach whose efficacy on reading and spelling performance in children and adolescents with reading disabilities is statistically confirmed.”
The Adoption and Spread of Systematic Synthetic Phonics (SSP) in Latin America
(Latin America)
“With knowledge of the English alphabetic code, even the children with special educational needs became successful – such as those with short-term memory, and dyslexic tendencies.”
Can Older Pupils Who Do Not Present as Struggling Readers Improve Their Basic Decoding Skills Through Systematic Phonics Instruction – and What Effect Does This Have on Reading and Spelling?
This study provides evidence that older pupils—many of whom had passed undetected as ‘competent readers’—can make significant gains in word-level reading and spelling when explicitly taught through systematic phonics instruction. The findings suggest that strengthening foundational decoding skills in adolescence can close persistent literacy gaps and improve accuracy, fluency, and confidence.
Recommended Reading
- Language at the Speed of Sight by Mark Seidenberg
- The Reading Mind by Daniel Willingham
- Progress in Understanding Reading Keith Stanovich
- Tales of Literacy for the 21st Century by Maryanne Wolf
- Why Our Children Can’t Read by Diane McGuinness
- Early Reading Instruction by Diane McGuinness
- Why School Children Can’t Read and Why Billy can’t read by Bonnie Mackmillan
- The Reading Framework by the Department for Education, England
- The Art and Science of Teaching Primary Reading by Christopher Such
- Teaching Systematic Synthetic Phonics by David Waugh and Ruth Harrison-Palmer
- Thinking Reading by James and Dianne Murphy
- Reading Through Tears by Byron and Jean Clyde
- Speech to Print by Louisa Cook Moats
- From Sound to Summary by Harriett Jentos
- Phonics Essentials by Gill Budgell
More Evidence *
Comprehension and background knowledge
- Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., and Kucan, L. (2013). ‘Bringing words to life: robust vocabulary instruction’ New York: The Guilford Press
- Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). ‘Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert’ Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271
- Grissmer, D., Buddin, R., Berends M., Willingham, D., DeCoster, J., Duran, C., Hulleman, C., Murrah, W., and Evans, T., (2023). ‘A Kindergarten Lottery Evaluation of Core Knowledge Charter Schools: Should Building General Knowledge Have a Central Role in Educational and Social Science Research and Policy?’ Working Paper No. 23-755. Available at https://www.edworkingpapers.com/ai23-755
- Oakhill, J., Cain, K. & Elbro, C. (2015). ‘Understanding and teaching reading comprehension. A handbook’ Abingdon: Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315756042/
- understanding-teaching-reading-comprehension-jane-oakhill-kate-cain-carsten-elbro
- Smith, R., Snow, P.,Serry, T. and Hammond, L. (2021). ‘The Role of Background Knowledge in Reading Comprehension: A Critical Review’ in Reading Psychology, Volume 42, 2021, Pages 214-240
- Willingham, D. (2006). ‘How Knowledge Helps’. Article published on the website of the American Educator, Spring 2006; https://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/spring-2006/how-knowledge-helps
- Willingham, D. (2017). ‘The reading mind’ San Francisco: Jossey- Bass
- Willingham, D. and Lovette, G. (2014). ‘Can reading comprehension be taught?’ Teachers College Record, 26.
- Wolf, M. (2008). ‘Proust and the squid. The story and science of the reading brain’ Cambridge: Icon Books
- Wolf, M. (2018). ‘Reader, come home. The reading brain in a digital world’ New York: HarperCollins
Early reading and phonics
- Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) (2021). Phonics (2021) Phonics | EEF (educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk)
- Ehri, L.C. and others (2001). ‘Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis’ Reading Research Quarterly: volume 36, number 3
- Gough, P.B. and Tunmer, W.E. (1986). ‘Decoding, reading and reading disability’ Remedial and Special Education: volume 7, issue 1
- Grant, M. (2014). ‘The effects of a systematic synthetic phonics programme on reading, writing and spelling’
- Johnston, R. and Watson, J. (2004). ‘Accelerating the development of reading, spelling and phonemic awareness skills in initial readers’ Reading and writing: an interdisciplinary journal: volume 17, number 4
- Johnston, R. and Watson, J. (2005). ‘The effects of synthetic phonics teaching on reading and spelling attainment: a seven year longitudinal study’ Edinburgh: Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.
- McGuinness, D. (2004). ‘Early Reading Instruction: What Science Really Tell Us about How to Teach Reading’ Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press
- Shanahan, T. and Lonigan, C.J. (2010). ‘The national early literacy panel report: summary, commentary, and reflections on policies and practices to improve children’s early literacy’ Educational Researcher: volume 39, issue 4
- Willingham, D. (2017). ‘The reading mind’ San Francisco: Jossey- Bass
Fluency
- Hudson, R. F., Lane, H. B., & Pullen, P. C. (2005). ‘Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how?’. The Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714
- Juul, H., Poulsen, M. and Elbro, C. (2014). ‘Separating speed from accuracy in beginning reading development’ Journal of Educational Psychology: volume 106, issue 4, pages 1096-1106
- Pikulski, J. J., & Chard, D. J. (2005). ‘Fluency: Bridge between decoding and reading comprehension.’ The Reading Teacher, 58(6), 510-519
- Rasinski, T. (2014). ‘Fluency matters.’ International electronic Journal of elementary education, 7(1), 3-12
- Willingham, D. (2017). ‘The reading mind’ San Francisco: Jossey- Bass
- Wolf, M. and Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). ‘Reading fluency and its intervention’ Scientific Studies of Reading: volume 5, issue 3, pages 211-239
Language development
- Cremin, T., Flewitt, R., Mardell, B. and Swann, J. editors (2017). ‘Storytelling in early childhood: Enriching language, literacy and classroom culture’ Abingdon: Routledge
- Gikerson, J and others. (2017). ‘Mapping the Early Language Environment Using All-Day Recordings and Automated Analysis’ American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology: volume 26, issue 2, May 2017
- Hart, B. and Risley, T.R. ‘The early catastrophe: The 30 million word gap by age 3’ American Educator: Spring 2003.
- Logan, J. Justice, L.M., Yumuş, M., Chaparro-Moreno, L.J. (2019). ‘When Children Are Not Read to at Home: The Million Word Gap’ Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics June 2019, Volume 40, Issue 5
- Weisleder, A. and Fernald, A. (2013). ‘Talking to children matters: Early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary’ Psychological Science 2013: volume 24, issue 11
Guidance reports, curricula and inspection handbooks
- Department for Education (2012). ‘Research evidence on reading for pleasure’ London: Department for Education
- Department for Education (2013). ‘The national curriculum in England. Framework document, September 2013’ London: Department for Education
- Department for Education (2021). Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage London: Department for Education
- Education Endowment Foundation (2019). ‘Improving Literacy in Secondary Schools Guidance Report’
- Lindorff, A. and others (2023). ‘Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS): National Report for England’ London: Department for Education
- McGrane, J. and others (2017). ‘Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS): National Report for England’ London: Department for Education
- OECD (2002). ‘Reading for change. Performance and engagement across countries. Results from PISA 2000’ Paris: OECD
- OECD (2021). ‘21st-century readers: Developing literacy skills in a digital world’ Paris: OECD Publishing
- Ofsted (2010). ‘Reading by six. How the best schools do it’ Manchester: Ofsted
- Ofsted (2022). ‘School inspection handbook. Handbook for inspecting schools in England under section 5 of the Education Act 2005’ Manchester: Ofsted
- Rose, J. (2006). ‘Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final Report’ Department for Education and Skills, page 21
- Standards & Testing Agency, Pre-key stage 1: pupils working below the national curriculum assessment standard Teacher assessment framework (2020)
- World Literacy Foundation (2018). ‘The Economic & Social Cost of Illiteracy’
Reading for pleasure
- Batini, F., Bartolucci, M., and Timpone, A. (2018). The effects of reading aloud in the primary school Psychology of Education: An Interdisciplinary Journal 55 (1 and 2):111-122
- Cole, A., Brown, A., Clark, C., & Picton, I. (2022). Children and young people’s reading engagement in 2022 Continuing insight into the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on reading. National Literacy Trust Research Report https://cdn.literacytrust.org.uk/media/documents/Reading_trends_2022_-_Final.pdf
- Cremin, T. Hendry, H., Rodriguez Leon and Kucirkova, N. (2022). Reading Teachers: Nurturing Reading for Pleasure, London, Routledge.
- Cremin, T., Mottram, M., Powell, S., Collins, R., & Safford, K. (2014). Building Communities of Engaged Readers: Reading for pleasure. Routledge.
- de Naeghel, J., Valcke, M., van Braak, J., & Keer, H. van. (2014). The role of teacher behavior in adolescents’ intrinsic reading motivation. Read Write. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9506-3
- Hebbecker, K., Förster, N. and Souvignier, E. (2019). Reciprocal Effects between Reading Achievement and Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading Motivation Scientific Studies of Reading 23, (5), 419–436 https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.159841 doi:10.1080/10888438.2019.1598413.
- Hempel-Jorgensen, A., Cremin, T., Harris, D. and Chamberlain, L. (2018). ‘Pedagogy for reading for pleasure in low socio-economic primary schools: beyond ‘pedagogy of poverty’?’, Literacy, Vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 86-94.
- Jerrim, J., & Moss, G. (2019). ‘The link between fiction and teenagers’ reading skills. International evidence from the OECD PISA study.’ British Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 181–200.
- McGeown, S., Norgate, R., & Warhurst, A. (2012). ‘Exploring intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation among very good and very poor readers.’ Educational Research, 54(3), 309-322. http://doi:10.1080/00131881.2012.710089
- McQuillan, J. (2019). ‘Where Do We Get Our Academic Vocabulary? Comparing the Efficiency of Direct Instruction and Free Voluntary Reading.’ The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 19(1). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332972073
- Moses, L., & Kelly, L. B. (2019). ‘Are They Really Reading? A Descriptive Study of First Graders During Independent Reading.’ Reading and Writing Quarterly, 35(4), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2018.1545615
- Ng, C. (2018). Using student voice to promote reading engagement for economically disadvantaged students. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(4), 700–715.
- Orkin, M., Pott, M., Wolf, M., May, S. & Brand, E. (2018). ’Beyond Gold Stars: Improving the Skills and Engagement of Struggling Readers through Intrinsic Motivation’ Reading & Writing Quarterly 34.3 203-217
- Sullivan, A., & Brown, M. (2015). ‘Reading for pleasure and progress in vocabulary and mathematics.’ British Educational Research Journal, 41(1), 971–991. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3180
- Sun Y-J., Sahakian, B., Langley, C., Yang, A. Jiang, Y. Jujiao Kang, J. Zhao, X.,Li, C., Cheng, W. and Fen, J. (2023). Early initiated childhood reading for pleasure: associations with better cognitive performance, mental well-being and brain structure in young adolescence. Psychological Medicine 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0033291723001381
- Tegmark, M., Alatalo, T., Vinterek, M., & Winberg, M. (2022). What motivates students to read at school? Student views on reading practices in middle and lower-secondary school. Journal of Research in Reading, 45(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12386
- Torppa, M., Niemi, P., Vasalampi, K., Lerkkanen, M. K., Tolvanen, A., & Poikkeus, A. M. (2020). ‘Leisure Reading (But Not Any Kind) and Reading Comprehension Support Each Other—A Longitudinal Study Across Grades 1 and 9.’ Child Development, 91(3), 876–900. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13241
- Toste, J. R., Didion, L., Peng, P., Filderman, M., & McClelland, A. M. (2020). ‘A Meta-Analytic Review of the Relations Between Motivation and Reading Achievement for K-12 Students.’ Review of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320919352
- Troyer, M., Kim, J. S., Hale, E., Wantchekon, K. A., & Armstrong, C. (2019). ‘Relations among intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation, reading amount, and comprehension: a conceptual replication.’ Reading and Writing 2018 32:5, 32(5), 1197–1218. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11145-018-9907-9
- Westbrook, J., Sutherland, J., Oakhill, J., & Sullivan, S. (2019). ‘Just reading’: the impact of a faster pace of reading narratives on the comprehension of poorer adolescent readers in English classrooms. Literacy, 53(2), 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.12141
Transition
- Higgins et al. (2015). ‘Reading at the Transition (Interim Evidence Brief).’ Education Endowment Foundation.
- Zeedyk, M. S., Gallacher, J., Henderson, M., Hope, G., Husband, B., Lindsay, K. (2003). ‘Negotiating the transition from primary to secondary school: perceptions of pupils, parents and teachers.’ Sch. Psychol. Int. 24 67–79
- Shinwell, J., Defeyter, M.A.. (October 2017). ‘Investigation of Summer Learning Loss in the UK-Implications for Holiday Club Provision.’ Front Public Health, vol. 6
Pupils with SEND
- Arciuli, J. and Bailey, B. (2021). ‘The promise of comprehensive early reading instruction for children with autism and recommendations for future directions’ Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools: volume 52, issue 1, pages 225-238
- Cologon, K. (2013). ‘Debunking myths: Reading development in children with Down Syndrome’ Australian Journal of Teacher Education: volume 38, number 3
- Dehaene, S. (2009). ‘Reading in the Brain’ London: Penguin Random House
- Sermier, D. and others (2021). ‘Effects of a phonics-based intervention on the reading skills of students with intellectual disability’ Research in Developmental Disabilities: volume 111
- Trembath, D. and others (2015). ‘Accurate or Assumed: Visual Learning in Children with ASD’ Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders: volume 45, pages 3276-3287
*This list is based on Appendix 13 of The reading framework (DfE 2023). It contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
For a treasure trove of further information and evidence, visit Dyslexia Demystified.